Undergraduate Courses for Second Year, B.Pharm.

No.	Topics	Contents
1.	Introduction to Physiology	Homeostasis Body fluid compartments The internal environment of the body Units for measuring solute concentration
2.	Cell physiology	Cell structure and function chemical structure physical structure structure and function of cell membrane organelles Intercellular connection and communication
3.	Haematology	Components of blood Physical properties of blood Packed cell volume (PCV) Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) The Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) The Leucocytes (White Blood Cells) The Platelets (Thrombocytes) General functions of blood Haemostasis ABO and Rh blood groups
4.	Excitable Tissues	Electrical properties of cell membrane Membrane potential Membrane resistance Membrane capacitance Nerve Functional anatomy Excitation of neuron Electrical responses of a neuron Neuromuscular junction in skeletal muscle Nerve endings in smooth and cardiac muscle: Synapse En passant Muscle skeletal muscle Morphology Sarcotubular system Electrical response Cardiac muscle Morphology Electrical response Smooth muscle Morphology Electrical response
5.	Autonomic Nervous System	Organization of the ANS Sensory receptors Afferent autonomic pathways (Visceral afferents) Integrating centre Autonomic outflow (Efferent pathways) (Sympathetic and parasympathetic division) Visceral effectors Chemical transmission at autonomic junctions Chemical transmission at autonomic junctions Receptors of postsynaptic tissues (drug receptors) Responses of effector organs to autonomic nerve impulses Functions of  the autonomic nervous system
6.	Cardiovascular Physiology	Functional organization of CVS The heart Structure Properties of cardiac muscle Cardiac conducting system Heart beat: origin and spread of cardiac excitation Cardiac cycle (Electrical events, mechanical and haemodynamic events) Atrial pressure changes cardiac output Circulation of blood Factors determining blood flow to tissues Regulation of vascular tone Systemic arterial blood pressure The microcirculation Regulation of blood flow to the heart: regulation of coronary circulation Practical Topics Examination of the arterial pulse Determination of blood pressure
7.	Physiology of Respiration	Respiration: general The respiratory tract Bronchial tone The alveoli Mechanics of respiration (breathing) Lung volumes and capacities Dead space Work of breathing Compliance Pulmonary circulation Pulmonary gas transfer General outline of partial pressure gradients for gas diffusion Diffusing capacity Transport of gases Regulation of respiration General functions of the respiratory system Hypoxia
8.	Gastrointestinal Physiology	Basic functions of gastrointestinal system Organization of the digestive system Layers of the wall of the gastrointestinal tract Innervation of the gastrointestinal tract Gastrointestinal hormones Gastrin CCK-PZ Secretin The mouth The salivary glands The oesophagus and deglutition The stomach Vomiting The pancreas Liver and biliary system The small intestine composition of intestinal juice motility of the small intestine absorption in the GI tract The large intestine (colon) functions of colon bacterial action in the large intestine defecation
9.	Renal Physiology and Body Fluids	The kidneys Functional structure Nephron: functional components Renal blood flow (RBF) The process of urine formation Glomerular function Tubular functions Diuresis Endocrine functions of the kidneys Homeostatic functions of the kidneys Micturition (urination) Regulation of body fluid Regulation of ECF volume Regulation of ECF tonicity
10.	General Endocrinology	General Endocrinology Overview of principal hormones of the body and their major sources (endocrine glands and other tissues) Factors influencing the action of hormone on the target tissue Mechanisms regulating hormone production (synthesis and secretion) Chemical nature of hormone Hypothalamus and Pituitary hormones Hypothalamic releasing or inhibiting hormones and their actions Hormones of the anterior pituitary ( the adenohypophysis) and their actions Anterior pituitary hormones (human growth hormone and prolactin) Posterior pituitary hormones (Arginine vasopressin (AVP) and Oxytocin) Thyroid hormones The adrenal gland The adrenal medulla: catecholamines The adrenal cortex: adrenocortical hormones The endocrine pancreas Insulin Glucagon Consequences of insulin deficiency (and glucagon excess) Consequences of insulin excess Hormonal regulation of calcium ion homeostasis Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Calcitriol (1,25 – dihydroxy cholecalciferol) Calcitonin
11.	Reproductive Physiology	The primary sex organs or gonads The secondary sex organs (Genitalia) Reproductive life (period) Onset of reproductive life Onset of puberty: neuroendocrine basis Pubertal changes Male reproduction Primary sex organs Secondary sex organs Spermatogensis Male sex hormones: androgens Control of testicular function Female reproduction Primary sex organs Secondary sex organs The menstrual cycle Indicators of ovulation Endocrine functions of the ovary Control of ovarian function Pregnancy The placenta The physiological termination of pregnancy: parturition Physiology of lactation
12.	Central  Nervous System	Organization of the nervous system Functions of the nervous system Structural and functional components of nervous system Reflexes The monosynaptic reflexes The polysynaptic reflexes Sensory physiology Properties of sensory receptors Principal sensory modalities Cutaneous sensation (Pain) The motor system Control of posture and movement Control of voluntary movement The pyramidal system The extrapyramidal system The cerebellar system Postural reflexes Midbrain Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Hypothalamus
13.	Skin and Thermoregulation	Epidermis Dermis Skin appendages Sweat glands (Eccrine sweat gland and Apocrine sweat gland) Sebaceous glands Subcutaneous fatty layer (hypodermis) Blood supply of the skin Cutaneous sensation Functions of skin Thermoregulation Body temperature (Core temperature and Shell temperature) Heat exchange with the environment Thermal balance Thermoregulation (Responses to cold, Responses to heat and Disorders of thermoregulation) Practical Topic Determination of body temperature